![]() ![]() ![]() Several non-modifiable (i.e., genetics) and modifiable factors influence physical fitness. In fact, findings from longitudinal studies indicate that higher levels of physical fitness during childhood and adolescence are associated with a healthier cardiovascular profile in adulthood (for a review see ). Further, there is evidence that physical fitness and its health-related outcomes track from childhood over adolescence into adulthood. Recent studies regarding the health burden of chronic diseases revealed significant inverse associations between physical fitness and various cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., blood pressure, insulin resistance, cholesterol/lipids, overweight/adiposity) in children and adolescents. ![]() Physical fitness is an important health determinant that is related to several physiological functions. Our findings suggest that sport club programs with appealing arrangements appear to represent a good means to promote physical fitness in children living in rural areas. Further, significantly better performance development were found for endurance ( p = 0.08, ES = 0.19) and lower-extremity strength ( p = 0.024, ES = 0.23) for children continuously participating in sports clubs compared to their non-participating peers. Over the 4 year study period, urban compared to rural children showed significantly better performance development for upper- ( p = 0.009, ES = 0.16) and lower-extremity strength ( p < 0.001, ES = 0.22). Living area (i.e., urban or rural) and sports club participation were assessed using parent questionnaire. One-hundred and seventy-two children (age: 9–12 years sex: 69 girls, 103 boys) were tested for their physical fitness (i.e., endurance, speed, lower- and upper-extremity muscle strength, flexibility, and coordination ). In a longitudinal approach, we examined the effects of living area and sports club participation on physical fitness development in primary school children from classes 3 to 6. Yet, their scientific value is limited because the identification of cause-and-effect relationships is not possible. Cross-sectional studies detected associations between physical fitness, living area, and sports participation in children. ![]()
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